Field Hockey - A Century of Key Rule Changes - 1910 to 2010

Field Hockey - A Century of Key Rule Changes - 1910 to 2010.

Denys G.T.  Cooper          2011 June 10, Final

This is a review of some of the main rule changes and the impact they have on the game, the players, and even for spectators, as well as for umpires.

Note:  old[er] rule number [1962 or earlier] is given first followed by the latest rule number.

1. What major rule changes have had key impacts on the outdoor game?

a.  Offside Rule: Old R12, then R 13, then R 12, and finally dropped in 1997: in each case the changes were aimed to increase the number of goals per game.

Game Impact: A major change was in 1972 when the offside rule was changed from 3 to 2 defenders. Then in1987 the rule was changed from being offside in an opponent's half moved up to the 25 yard line. However, neither of these changes led to the increase in goals anticipated because defence teams soon learnt to adjust the offside trap. But it did open a whole new element of the game, namely the long high scoop / lob in behind the defence for a cherry picker to run onto the ball. But this led to more interpretation notes on danger and allowing the defender reasonable "access" to the ball once the ball had dropped to the ground. The long lob was also easier to execute with the short “Indian” head of the stick [see below]. In 1995, the offside rule was dropped as an experimental rule change – and finally eliminated in 1997. This came in part, from the good experience in indoor hockey. “No-offside” opened up the game even further, to give the attackers more scope for more goals. Again defenders responded so the sweeper back became more prevalent.

Umpire Impact: It was a major change for umpire positioning as it meant they had to be more careful about coming to far beyond the half way line.

It also reinforced the start of the 2-umpire partner arrangement begun shortly prior to Olympic Games 1972 in Germany and clearly evident in 1976 in Montreal, when "team umpiring' was discussed by umpire managers with their officials. With the “No-offside”, and team umpiring, umpires now come even deeper into the other half of the field. It means that umpires have to be fitter to be able to sprint back, as needed, especially with the high scoop ball.

b.  Raised Ball: Old R 10, now R 9.9. It is still a foul to intentionally raise the ball from a hit except for a shot at goal [R 9.9]. The limitation of a raised ball above the knee into the circle was dropped [R12.I.g] - danger is the limiting criteria [R 9.8]. If the ball is raised unintentionally, the dangerous play provisions apply [R 9.9]. A raised ball from a kick by a goalkeeper is covered by the danger provisions also.

Game Impact: The rule now discusses the raised ball in 3 phases - from where it starts, during flight, and where it lands. It even gives benefits to the defender / receiver being given space so opponents cannot approach within 5 metres until the defender has had a chance to play the ball. If it is not clear which is the initial receiver, the player of the team which raised the ball must allow an opponent to receive the ball [R 9.10].

Initially, artificial turf fields were criticized because the high / lob ball led to excessive bounce of the ball so leading to extra danger. The situation is better now with better turf design, including use of sand-dressed artificial turf, and watered artificial turf fields. Rubber filled artificial turf fields are common in North America but are not officially approved by the FIH. When played safely, the raised ball has opened up the game.

Umpire Impact: Increased need to watch for danger including the ball landing situations, but also for positioning for the subsequent plays.

c.  Intentionally Undercutting the Ball: Old R 10.c, then R 12 I.d notes in the 1980s, then reference to undercutting was taken out altogether. A penalty for undercutting the hit was first introduced in 1904 but the scoop was still permitted. In 1975 use of the stick ‘tilted at an angle’ for the purposes of raising the ball was a foul - regardless of the proximity of other players. This was only changed when greater emphasis was put on the ACTUAL danger rather than perceived danger.

d.  Penalty Corner: Old R17, then R15.2, now R 13.3.j. The penalty corner was first introduced in 1908. Since then there have been several modifications to the rule mostly concerning danger and the need for more goals from penalties incurred by defenders.

A key change was to require that at a penalty corner, the ball had to be stopped inside or outside the circle before a shot of goal could be taken. The requirement for "stopped" ball, before a shot on goal from inside the circle, had been a major concern for players [safety and frustration], spectators and umpires. The ball could be stopped by the stick or hand [1970s R.15.d.iv].

In part to increase the safety aspect, the rule was amended in 1984 to say no shot on goal until the ball had come out of the circle and stick stopped before a shot on goal could be taken from inside the circle. [R15.2.1.j]. In 2003, there was a trial to no longer require the ball to be stopped before moving the ball back into the circle for a shot on goal. This change was formally accepted for 2005 [now R 13.3.j]. In all cases, the PC scoring requirements were dropped if the ball was played first by a defender inside the circle. An incidental touch of the ball by a defender does not end the penalty corner requirements.

A number of other changes were tried including the requirement that at a PC only five defenders and the goalkeeper were allowed behind the goal line, with the rest of the defenders were to be beyond the centre line [was R 15.b]. For a short period the rule was amended so that only the goalkeeper was allowed to stand in the goal with the rest of the defenders standing on the side of the goal opposite to where the penalty corner was being taken [see 1992 R15.b]. In 1987, the number of defenders behind the goal line was reduced from 6 to 5 players. Now they may stand anywhere behind the goal line but at least 5 m from the ball. The rest of the defenders shall be beyond the centre line [R. 13.3 f and g]. For a period from 1961 the rest of the defenders had to go beyond the 25 yards line.

With improved field surfaces, especially on artificial turf, the attacker taking the hit increasingly uses the long drag push thereby shortening the distance the after the ball leaves the stick. As a result a rule change now requires that that attacker shall have at least one foot outside of the field [R13.3.c].

To increase safety, a player defending a penalty corner or penalty stroke is now permitted to temporarily wear a face mask [R 2.2]. Time is not stopped for the equipment change.

When does the penalty corner end? A modification was introduced to say that the PC continues until the ball passes over the goal line, or comes out beyond the 5 m line outside the circle [R 13.5]. A foul by a defender in the circle, or an attacker entering the circle early before the hit in, still leads to another PC.

A PC could have an important impact on the game and even the result near the end of half / full time. The rule was amended to allow the PC to be completed even though "time has run out", even for a repeat PC. After problems at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles a rule change was made before 1992 [was R15.g, now R 13.4 - see item 3d below].

Game Impact: Positive in terms of players for increased safety and reduced interpretation issues, and excitement for spectators. That said, safety is still a great concern at penalty corners.

Umpire Impact: Positive, especially for end of time penalty corners as there is a reduced need by players to waste time to run the clock out.

e.  Feet: Old R 10e, then R 13.1.2, now R 9.11. In 1938 the use of feet as a mode to stop the ball was deemed a foul. For many years the rules stated that "it is not necessarily a foul" if the ball touches the feet of an opponent. The player only commits a foul if they deliberately move their hand, foot or body to play the ball. There are exceptions for goalkeepers.

Game Impact: From about 2000 even more emphasis was being given to let play continue unless there was an unfair advantage, so minor feet should not be blown.

Umpire Impact: Umpires are being told to allow even more play-on for "feet" situations - even for a raised ball onto the lower shins /ankles unless the ball is deliberately driven into an opponent. To let play go on, if possible, is more important to increase the flow of the game as long as no unfair advantage is gained. Some spectators may see more inconsistency by umpires but this is because of the lack of the formers’ understanding of "advantage" versus undue “disadvantage".

f.  Substitutions: Old R 1.b, then R 6.2, now R 2.3. Substitutes were first allowed in 1973 for up to 2 players, but once taken off the field, the player was not allowed back onto the field. In 1988/9, 3 substitutes were permitted. Each time the clock was stopped for the changes to take place since 1988, [as Old R1.c]. Then in 1999, open substitution was allowed, except at penalty corners, for as many players as were registered on the team roster up to 16 players. Since 1992, multiple changes, with rolling changes are allowed with no formal stoppage of time. The exception for time stoppage remains for a change of a goalkeeper who is wearing full protective equipment, then time is briefly stopped, but not for the incoming goalkeeper to put on protective equipment [R 2.3.g].

Game Impact: Key changes were needed when players were being deliberately attacked resulting in injury and taken off the field. Increased international pressure at World Cup and Olympic events were becoming more demanding on athletes, especially for events held in hot / humid or at high elevations. Now, there are fewer deliberate injuries to players. Deliberate injuries and simulated injuries, especially by goalkeepers, are a continuing issue. Spectators want to see top performances by letting players return to the field after short breaks. One negative aspect of the 1995 change allowed substitutions at PCs so that a specialty player could come on for the penalty. At the 1996 Olympic Games, one team used this loop hole to bring on a specialist striker specifically to take the PC; the rule was amended in 1998 for no substitutions at a PC [now R 2.3.a], except for an injured goalkeeper.

Umpire Impact: Player substitutions now occur frequently, except at PCs. When there is no technical table to control substitutions, there is a potential problem for umpires to control the number of players on the field. Abuse has not been a problem.

g.  Obstruction Rule: Old R 10.g then R12.I.m, then R 13.1.4 then dropped but issues are covered by R 9.12. The obstruction rule was first introduced in 1886. In 1992 it was amended. Indeed, the Guidance Notes included the comment that “subject to the advantage rule, umpires should be particularly strict on obstruction”. The different forms of obstruction were discussed: involve the whole body, foot, dropped shoulder, or the stick. Indeed, there can be instances of merely placing the mentioned item[s] in such a way as to impede or prevent an opponent’s access to the ball, such as in third party obstruction. In 2001, the wording was simplified by referring to the basic principle that a player must not obstruct an opponent who is attempting to play the ball. In 2004 the obstruction rule was simplified further.

With revised wording to Rule 9, the obstruction rule was dropped altogether [in 2010]. Three key rule elements are still important. First, players must not touch, handle or interfere with other players, their sticks or clothing [R 9.3]. Second, a player must not impede another player [R 9.4]. Third, a player must not tackle unless in a position to play the ball without body contact [R 9.13]. In the Umpire Manager’s briefing of 2010, obstruction is covered in two of the slides; also stick obstruction is seen as a ‘hot issue’ for players.

A player with the ball is permitted to move off with it in any direction except bodily into an opponent [ Old R 10.g, then R 12], where the old Notes refer to “a change of direction by half-turn of the body may amount to a breech [1962]". Dropped in 1996 - revised wording in 2001 [R 13.1.2 and 13.1.4].

Game Impact: Impeding of an opponent or body contact with an opponent is increasingly evident as a deliberate action and thereby detracts from the skilled player with the ball. It can also lead to injuries.

The impact of the turning interpretation is major as it speeds up the game, and increases scoring opportunities. Use of artificial turf [smoother fields] and short head sticks have made a major contribution to the use of the turn with the ball.

Umpire Impact: It is important for the flow of the game that the interpretation be consistently and fairly applied.

h.  Manufactured Foul: Appendix B, R 13. This was introduced in 2001, but then dropped in 2010 with use of the present interpretations on access to the ball and danger aspects. There has been an increased use of the manufactured foul in order to try to get umpires to ‘penalize’ an opponent. Examples include deliberately playing the ball onto the feet of an opponent, or use of out stretched arms to try to invoke obstruction.

Game Impact:  Manufactured fouls detract from the fairness and flow of the game.

Umpire Impact: This should be strictly blown for a free hit and where appropriate upgrading the penalty awarded including use of a card.

i.  Raised Sticks: Old Rule 10 b was dropped in 1983. The sticks rule had been in the rule book since 1886. Changes were introduced in 1959 to reduce the number of whistles being blown but soon reversed in 1965 when “brute force” aspects were increasingly being used at free hits. Raised sticks at a free hit are no longer a foul. If a raised stick leads to dangerous play, that may be blown [R9.2].

Game Impact: The rationale, of needing a hard hit to get the ball down field, was reduced with the increased use of artificial turf, and more use of the slap /drag push shots. In regular play, in front of an oncoming player, yes it should be blown. In general, the actual danger and /or intimidation aspects are the main rationales for retention of the Rule.

A significant rule interpretation change permitted goalkeepers to use their stick above their shoulder to stop or deflect a shot at goal. In 2003 this was extended as an Experimental Rule, then confirmed in 2004, to allow ANY defender in the circle to raise the stick above the shoulder when defending any shot at goal including at a penalty corner or penalty stroke as long as it was not dangerous.

Umpire Impact: There is still a need to control danger / intimidation aspects.

j.  Penalty Bully - Penalty Stroke: This was introduced in 1896 as a bully for a foul by a defender in the circle. It was replaced for a serious foul by a penalty bully in front of the goal. There still were not enough goals being scored. In 1963, the penalty bully [R18] was replaced by a Penalty Stroke [Old R 16, now R 12.4]. This was needed to increase the severity of the penalty in favour of the offended team. Furthermore, in 1975, the penalty spot was moved from 8 yards to just 7 yards in front of the goal [now Field Specifications: Lines 1.3.j at 6.4 metres]. Recently the wording for procedures for taking a penalty stroke has been better defined. If the striker takes the stroke before the umpire has blown the whistle, the stroke shall be retaken even if at that first attempt the ball went wide or was stopped by the goalkeeper [R 13.9.f].

Game Impact: This achieved restitution of a deprived opportunity for attackers. Disadvantage: The penalty stroke is used increasingly now to settle ties after a short overtime period. It was first used for this in 1970.

Umpire Impact: Better. Recent changes on player feet movements in 2008 have made it easier for players and umpires to "start" the penalty stroke [R 13.5].

j.  Roll In at the Side Line: Replaced by a Push or Hit In [Old R 14, then R 10.2, now  R 15.1.j]: The roll in was introduced in 1902., but it was replaced in 1970 by the push-in, as R17. IV. In 1979, the rule was expanded to allow a hit or push, but not a scoop, to put the ball back into play from the side line.

Game Impact: The argument has eventually reverted to the game being a ”stick and ball' one, i.e. no hand involvement except in case of safety protection. Why a push and not a hit?  A push-in was seen as a "neutral" way to get play restarted. Today, on artificial turf, a push or hit makes little difference on the impact on the game.

k.  Corner: Old R 15, then R 16, then R 17, now R 7.4. Locally known by some as a Long Corner. The hit / push in was taken with the ball placed on the back line within 3 yards of the corner flag. Some of the defenders had to be behind the back line. Before a shot on goal, the ball had to be stopped by an attacker, either in or outside the circle. A corner was awarded when the ball, outside the 25 yards zone, was hit or deflected by a defender unintentionally over the goal line, but no goal was scored. In the 1990s, the 25 yards zone was dropped. So a ball unintentionally played / deflected over the back-line by a defender from anywhere on the field may be a corner.

When it was realised that the corner should just be a means of putting the ball back into play, and not a penalty, in 1996, the requirements of putting the ball back into play were loosened: the need for defenders to be behind the back line was dropped and the position for the hit in was moved to a spot 5 yards from the corner flag but on the side line. The 1960s requirement that the ball had to be stopped before a shot on goal was dropped.

Game Impact: Changes reflect the nature of recommencing play, rather than a form of penalty. The previous stopped ball requirement caused a lot of aggravation. The changes lead to greater safety of players.

Umpire Impact: Umpires need to be aware of the last person who played the ball that passes over the defenders’ back line.

i.  Restart of Play: Old R 13, then R 10 and 7, now R 6.3, 7, and R 13.2. A significant rule change occurred in 2009 which allows for a either a direct hit or a 2-step self pass to restart play to begin a half of the game, after a goal or a free hit [now R 13.2]. There are a number of limitations especially for self passes near the circle such as requiring the ball to move 5 metres before it is played into the circle, unless first touched by a defender.

Game Impact: Yes, it has definitely speeded up the restart of the play.

Umpire Impact: Need clear[er] signals by the umpire to colleague AND to all players. Need faster positioning by umpires. The key challenge remains for positioning and alertness for umpires near the circle.

m.  The Ball: Replace seamed cricket ball: Old R 6, then R 3,now R 4.8 and in Field Equipment Specifications R 3.

·                            For many years, the definition of a hockey ball was based on a leather cricket ball. Reference to leather seamed cricket balls was dropped in the 1979 rule book.

·                            With the use of artificial turf for the first time ever for an international tournament [1975], it was demonstrated that the seam had a negative effect on the curvature of the path of the ball hit along the turf - with or against the grain or nap of the turf, [more / less respectively].

·                            Furthermore, with watering of the artificial turf the leather balls picked up moisture through the stitch holes so made the balls soggy and no longer weight rule compliant. Technology improved too to make hard wearing plastic balls acceptable.

·                            Increased injury from cuts by the ribbed seam.

Game Impact: Players liked the new type of non-ribbed balls. Experience with plastic covered balls in indoor hockey helped the change. With plastic balls, it enabled players to better anticipate ball reception and stick stopping performance [predictability of line of sight] for players. Dimpled balls mean less water pick up and results in faster ball movement across the turf. White balls are still preferred but balls of “an agreed color which contrasts with the playing surface” may be used [R4.8]. There maybe some increase in injuries due to the harder ball when hitting the body.

Umpire Impact: Faster game.

n.  Play under Artificial Lights: Whilst not covered by a specific rule, the increased use of artificial turf, there has been an increase in the numbers of fields with artificial lights. For years all international tournaments were played during daylight hours. With increased internationalization of major events artificial lighting for use in evening games has been accepted since the mid 1970s.

Game Impact: For warmer climates / seasons, this has advantages for players to play at cooler times of the day. Evening games should extend the time slots available for games [local] and matches for the benefit of players and spectators. For player safety the lighting levels need to be bright enough and evenly distributed to reduce shadow effects. Three levels of lighting are recommended in the FIH guideline with even higher lighting levels required if television / recording are involved. See reference to a Guide to the artificial lighting of hockey pitches, 2007:

Umpire Impact: Neutral as long as the lighting is adequate.

o.  Advantage: While not a rule, the concept was introduced in 1927. Old R 10.g, then R 12.I.e, then R 14, now R 12.1. This is a key aspect of the game so that not every foul should be penalized, but no unfair advantage must to accrue either to the perpetrator of the foul or to that player’s team.

Game Impact: Speeds up the game with fewer whistles.

Umpire Impact: For many years umpires have been encouraged to allow more advantage, but the advantage must be real. If the umpire has decided on allowing advantage, as indicated by the appropriate hand signal, but the advantage does not materialize a few seconds later, the whistle should not be blown for a foul. The umpire needs to determine the more significant advantage from allowing play to continue versus penalizing the foul and thereby awarding the appropriate penalty. Depending on the circumstances, letting play continue may be more advantageous than awarding a penalty corner for a foul occurring in the circle. This may change also depending on the skills level of players - local versus international.

2.  What have been the key changes in hockey sticks?

a.  English Long Head to Short Crook Indian Stick: Old R 7, the R 8, then R 4, now R 4.7 and Field Equipment Specifications R2. Except for the changes in the head size - most of the changes have taken place more recently since the reappraisal of the hockey stick began in 1999.

Game Impact: The shorter head - “Indian stick” - has speeded up the game. It offered increased opportunities for high skill players and increased the ease of doing high scoop / lob ball as above in 1.a. There has been a major increase by players in the use of the reverse stick for both stopping and hitting the ball. It also enables a player to cover a greater zone in defence with easier use of backhand protection without the ball rolling under the old long tip of the stick. Indoor hockey experience has had an impact on the use of the short and ultra short head for use on artificial turf outdoors. It has led to increased excitement for spectators.

Umpire Impact: Stick obstruction remains an on-going concern.

b.  Double Backed Hook on the Stick: Old R 8.c, now Field Equipment Specifications R 2: This type of stick is used more and more by goalkeepers.

Game Impact: This type of stick has increased the effective protection area of the head - it more than doubles the “effective” width but the stick has to pass through the “2 inch diameter” ring [51 mm R 4.7.b] - the effective width maybe as much as to 5 inches (18 cms) coverage.

Umpire Impact: Neutral, because the ring test [5.1 cms] is usually undertaken for international matches - by the technical table / reserve umpire.

c.  Use of the Flat Side of the Stick: Old R 7, then R 4, now Equipment 2.4. A key feature of the game from the start of the rules was that only one side of the stick could be used to play the ball – indeed the stick’s flat side meant that players would normally hold the stick on the right hand side of the body [old R 12 II (a)]. With the Indian stick there is greater use of the reverse stick to stop or / push hit the ball. In 2000, a Mandatory Experimental rule R 4.5 was introduced which extended the playing surface of the stick from not just the flat face but also to include the edges. The use of the edge of the stick in the backhand has developed in a technical skill and is permitted subject to danger [R 9.6]. However, since 2007, players can no longer make hard hits when using the front edge of the stick – controlled use is allowed for instance in a tackle [R 9.6].

d.  Artificial Turf: This enables use of lighter sticks - more pushes, and less need for hard / long distance hits.

Game Impact: Artificial turf has had a major impact on the game as well as organizing local and international events.

-       For local activities they have enabled much greater usage - more hours per day, so much so that some clubs have sold off multiple grass fields to install a single artificial turf pitch.

-       For international events, it has reduced the number of fields that need to be provided by the hosts to one or two fields, and so reduced the costs of events and logistics, but these are being offset increased security for hosting international events.

-       Artificial turf has speeded up the flow of the game and so higher player fitness levels are required – this is only partially offset by the increased use of substitutions.

-       Lighter sticks enable more flexible stick work and increased benefits for skilled players.

Umpire Impact: With an increase in the speed of the game, higher fitness levels of umpires is required. Fewer hits instead of pushes mean less prospect of injury to opponents from being hit on the feet by the ball. However, the recent increased speed of the ball from pushes and drag pushes may have raised the number of injuries.

e.  Hardness / Stiffness of Sticks and Bow of the Stick: Field Equipment Specifications R 2.3.k.

Game Impact: Increased hardness and stiffness of sticks has led to harder shots on goal but also resulted in more severe vibration in arms / elbows of players, especially when the sticks are cold. However, this has been improved with new designs and materials. In 2006, the bow of the main handle was reduced from 50 mms to 25 mms because it was claimed that the larger bows led to increased hardness of flicks on goal.

Umpire Impact: None. Likewise, neutral for increased use of curvature of the stick.

f.  Wood Based Sticks vs Metal / Aluminum Inserts in Sticks: Old R 7, then Equipment – Specifications R 2.7. In 1999, metal and metallic substances were banned. As late as 2002 reference to the stick material was stated as “may be made of [or contain wood] or any material other than metal or metallic components. [R4.2]. All reference to wood has since been dropped [Field Equipment Specifications 2.7].

Game Impact: The materials issue is still likely to continue to be "studied" by the FIH Equipment sub committee.

Umpire Impact:  Safety of players is an ongoing issue for umpires and managers. Metal inserts are still banned - if they creep in, it will be hard for umpires to check for.

3. Comments on Other Changes:

a.  Metric Conversion: Since 1998, metric dimensions have been used in the rules, but many are still based on a direct conversion from inches, feet, and yards. For full metrification, there are cost implications for hardware – such as for goalposts, and for artificial turf fields installed already with lines printed / painted onto the surface.

b.  Circle: Old R 5, then R 1.4, now R 1.6: In 1950, the radius of the circle was increased from 15 yards to 16 yards.

Game Impact: The aim was to increase the number of goals.

c.  5 Metre Markings: In 2000, hashed markings 5 metres beyond the 15 metre circle were introduced as part of determining when the special conditions for a penalty corner ended.

c.  Corner Flags Placed "at” the Corner: Old R 4 h, now R1.9. The wording was changed in 1975. In prior years the corner flags were placed "on" the corner. On grass that was not a problem to change as the technical director just picked up and moved the flag 1 - 2 cms. For events on grass or on artificial turf, the corner flag may be placed on a moveable base - could even be spring loaded for extra safety.

d.  Time Extension to Complete Penalty Corner at the end of a Half. Was R 15.2.3, now R 13.4: In the late 1990s, this rule was adopted for outdoor hockey in part from the good experience at the indoor game. The end of the penalty corner is determined when a goal is scored, or the ball goes over the back line, or 5 yards beyond the 16 yards circle. If there is a breach by the defenders, a repeat penalty corner can still be awarded.

Game Impact: Previously there was an ongoing problem of time wasting by the defence to let time run out. Time wasting still occurs but the negative impact on the opportunity of scoring a goal has been reduced. The change has increased spectator appeal.

Umpire Impact: Favourable.

e.  Bully: Old R 9, then R18, now R 6.5: The bully is a unique feature of the game. Dropping the bully was discussed as long ago as 1902. At the international level most bullies ended up in fouls. So the game had to be “restarted” with a whistle for a free hit in the first 10 seconds of a game.

Four changes in the use and operation of bullies are:

i.              Changed in 1983 from a centre bully to a centre pass back [Old R 1g]. This was revised again so that the centre pass can be played in any direction to start the game or restart after half time, or after a goal has been scored [now R 6.4.b].

ii.   The 25-yard penalty bully was replaced in 1957 by a –“16 yards” hit to be taken at the top of the circle – now 15 metres. This was a way to put the ball in play after going over the back line.

iii.  Change of bully from 3 stick taps to one tap - better - this speeds up the re-start of game, and results in fewer fouls. A bully is still used as a way to "restart" play in the case of injury [Old R 18.b, new R 6.5], or for umpire error.

iv.  Changed from a bully with all players "onside” - now other players can be in any location as long as they are more than 5 metres from ball - again reflects change from addressing the issue of a bully not given as a penalty, but merely a neutral means to restart play under certain conditions.

f.  Use of Hands: Old R 10.d, then R 12.II.a.. For many years it was acceptable to use the hand to stop the ball, or even catch a raised ball [as long as it was dropped immediately]. It was frequently used at penalty corners to stop the ball before a shot on goal. Hand use was abolished in 1983 except for by goalkeepers, or in self protection by a player.

g.  Colored Cards: The temporary suspension was introduced in 1959, and redefined to be a minimum of 5 minutes in 1975 [R 12.4.b, now R 11.4 and Umpires 2.3]. Color cards - green, yellow, and red - were introduced in 1970, but only formally included in the rule book in 1979. It is easier for umpires without having to explain the degree of penalty. Use of cards better reflects the broadening reach of hockey to all regions of the world. The Experimental Rules for 2010 include a 2-minute suspension of a player with a green card.

h.  Accidents and Blood. Old R 18, then R 16.c, now R 2.6. In the mid 1990s, the Accident clauses were amended to require a bleeding player to leave the field of player as soon as it was safe to do so. Later on, this was further extended to forbid players wearing blood stained clothing.

Game Impact: Increased health and safety of players, including those not injured.

Conclusion: In spite of the many rule changes to the game, there has not been as large an increase in the number of goals scored per game as some had anticipated. There has been some reduction in the number of whistles / stoppages per game. However, the speed and flow of the game have picked up.

References:

1. FIH Rule books consulted: for most years from 1962 onwards including 2009 /10 at: http://www.worldhockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-203956-221179-148180-0-file,00.pdf This reference has since been replaced by

Rules of Hockey as from 1 January 2011 at:

http://www.fihockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-203465-220688-168858-0-file,00.pdf

2. USA Field Hockey: Field Hockey Rules Development Timeline. Covered 51 rule changes and Notes from 1901 to 2007/8, including some of the recent experimental rules. But the hot link no longer works for http://www.usfieldhockey.com/rules/history.html 

3. Singh’s Hockey Quiz and Umpiring with 555 questions and answers - 1975.

4. A History of the Rules of Hockey based on the original set recorded by the Surbiton Hockey Club in England. It was issued in 2000 as a centennial project, and since updated each year. In total, it covers over 100 rule changes from 1876 to 2011:

http://www.worldhockey.org/vsite/vcontent/page/custom/0,8510,1181-123651-124958-16294-53006-custom-item,00.html .

5. Guide to the artificial lighting of hockey pitches, 2007:

 http://www.fihockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-187368-204590-130386-0-file,00.pdf

6. Umpire Manager’s Briefing for Umpires 2011. FIH issued 30 September 2010. See:

http://www.fihockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-203470-220693-168866-0-file,00.pdf .

7. Umpire’s Soliloquy.

To blow, or not to blow – that is the question

Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer

The quirks and comments of out spoken men

And still to operate the law of ‘vantage

Or sound the blast that brings the move to naught

And with unfettered hit the fault amends

The thought that when the match is o’er

The embattled hordes foregather in the George

And live again the tourney, move by move

Must give no pause: and having paused

To think perchance to dream, aye there is the rub.

Extract from Canadian Field Hockey News, 1975

-       Author unknown.

Denys G. T. Cooper, FIH [1975]

CANADA